Abstraction And formalization. Classification, territorial grouping and periodization are both “shelves” along which it is convenient to arrange the material, and the establishment of key points in the structure, properties and development of the phenomena being studied. This is where the important general meaning comes from. specified methods. However, with all this, at the stage of systematization only sensory-concrete knowledge is completed. The beginning of theoretical knowledge is the formation of concepts and laws.
Laws can be derived given sufficiently high abstraction. Soil zones V.V. Dokuchaev on his map is a highly abstract image that extremely generalizes the distribution of soils in the northern hemisphere. But if he had followed the path of depicting all microhabitats of soils, which are studied during field research, he would hardly have formulated a law of nature.
Abstraction, as a method of cognition, is used at all stages of research. This is because there are two types of abstraction: abstraction-distraction And abstraction-
generalization. Abstraction-distraction is used due to the fact that knowledge cannot immediately cover the subject as a whole and research is always forced to proceed by considering individual aspects and gradually synthesizing these aspects.
The use of abstraction-distraction at the stage of research is especially important. It is based on the idea of the diversity of the object being studied and the need to focus on one of the many relationships and properties.
With theoretical generalizations, one no longer operates with an object that can be measured, weighed, or moved. At this stage, only abstraction-generalization is used. Abstraction-generalization forms concepts, laws and theories by eliminating the random, inessential and establishing only general properties from numerous definitions. In this sense, abstraction-generalization is a synthesis, and is opposed to abstraction-distraction (analysis) not as a summation of the elements considered, but as a mental operation of mediating general properties.
For example, when describing the deserts of the Caspian lowland, we point to a flat surface below the level of the World Ocean, Baer hillocks, blinders, etc. Speaking about the desert zone of the world, we will be forced to indicate only some properties of landscapes: arid climate, the distribution of gray soils, salt marshes, xerophytes, halophytes. When the concept of landscape is formed, all specific characteristics are replaced by the concept of components and their relationships. But such an external “impoverishment” of the content of a concept makes it possible to identify the necessary, general, and natural in a large number of objects and use this generalization to develop general concepts, laws, theories and concepts. In the case considered, the concept of landscape reflects all the diversity of the nature of the earth's surface at all taxonomic levels and lies at the basis of all physical geography as a science, being its main concept.
The result of abstraction is formalization. At the stage of abstraction-distraction, as its immediate result, a simplified model of a formal nature arises. This can be said about any form for describing a point, which, cutting off the diverse content of a phenomenon, orients the researcher towards physiognomically clear, easily measurable aspects of the object, that is, they orient him primarily towards the form of the phenomenon. Also, flowcharts, which are widely introduced into our science as models of objects, are only the researcher’s idea of their functional structure.
But here we are more interested in formalization as a generalization, i.e. the result of abstraction-generalization. The essence of formalization as a generalization is abstraction from the content of objects and phenomena. In the extreme case, formalization leads to operating with symbols alone. The objective basis for this replacement of the substantive with the formal is the unity of content and form, quality and quantity.
Geography uses a fairly large number of symbols: schematic - graphs, diagrams, profiles; cartographic; chemical and mathematical. But to what extent can they be called formalization-generalization?
Dependency graphs and profiles provide a generalization of mass data obtained from observations and calculations, since in them quantitative data are transferred from discrete to general. For example, the air temperature at some point relates only to this period, but not to any other. The same applies to any other empirical material - the height of the terrace in a measured location, the depth of thawing of frozen rocks, etc. Given the modern knowledge of nature, these single data do not have much scientific value. Only graphical processing of many individual measurements can make it possible to find connections between them and elevate them from the individual to the special and the general. From four or more observations, the daily variation of temperature is found, the daily average gives the annual variation; All heights and depths are found on a topographic profile, although it is impossible and unnecessary to continuously measure the entire route, etc. Many graphical methods also make it possible to find hidden connections between phenomena. This applies, for example, to complex landscape profiles, where connections between different components can be found. Calculation graphs also serve to quickly find function values based on argument values. For example, it is enough to set the water level in the river in order to find the values of water consumption and flow speed using the flow chart.
The same is true with cartographic image, where the spatial arrangement of objects and phenomena is elevated from the individual to the general. The history of geographical discoveries gives us material about the exploits accomplished in the name of closing the “blank spots”. It is not for nothing that it is believed that the measure of mappability, essentially the continuous filling of space, reflects the measure of knowledge of the phenomenon.
Formalization of material in schematic symbols is one of the most common methods of empirical generalization of material and is widely used in geography.
As for the remaining symbols, they are used in settlement operations. Moreover, all equations can be solved unambiguously according to the rules of calculus, regardless of what we're talking about: livestock numbers, population, water balance. In these equations, it is enough to know some of the parameters in order to calculate the required parameters from them without expensive field or experimental work. However, such formalization can be adequate and productive if it sufficiently fully reflects the content. Only a deep study of the content can lead to its correct display in the form.
An example of such meaningful formalization was the expression of the law of geographic zonation in the equation of the radiation index of dryness, which contributed to the derivation of the periodic law of zonation and obtaining quantitative characteristics of the types of zonal landscapes. Without meaningful long-term research into geographical zones, such productive formalization could hardly have been realized. Therefore, it is quite possible to say that formalization is a dialectical negation of meaningful research that has received a completed form in concepts, laws and theories. Developing this idea, we can talk about formalization as a method of theoretical generalization, which makes it possible to rise to a higher level of generalization, to achieve greater generality by impoverishing the content of concepts. 1
Formalization in geographical science will help to penetrate into areas of thinking where it is impossible to formulate a correct theoretical idea based only on objective entities. This is guaranteed by attempts to transform cartographic images into cartoids that more deeply reflect spatial relationships; the use of graphing machines, various calculation formulas and electronic computers.
But we must not forget that formalization is only a stage, and not the goal of cognition, it is not even the highest level of cognition, but a method of achieving a strict, unambiguous understanding of objective reality, on the basis of which reliable forecasts and recommendations can be made.
In addition, formalization has its natural limits. It can be used where there are stable characteristics, connections and relationships, and only in cases where there is a need for strict, as unambiguous as possible, characteristics.
And where there is a need for guaranteed control and quantitative characteristics, formalisms must enter the scene that reflect the content of matter and energy, as well as their movements in quantitative terms and in countable relationships with each other.
34 0
Word formation. Comes from the Greek. theory - research. Category. Generalization form. Specificity. It is based on identifying significant connections between phenomena of the surrounding world, indicating their genetic relationship. It is carried out with the help of a concept in which only the most essential is fixed, and the particular is omitted. The ability for theoretical generalization is formed most intensively in adolescence and youth.
Meanings in other dictionaries
Theoretical Constructs
(theoretical constructs) It is not difficult to identify observed behavior, for example, to say that a person. eating or running, it is much more difficult to determine what causes such behavior. If the relevant conditions preceding a given behavior are known, for example, if it is known that running was preceded by the presentation of a stimulus harmful to health, and eating was preceded by the presentation of food, which preceded it ...
Theoretical Generalization
A generalization based on identifying significant connections between phenomena of the surrounding world, indicating their genetic relationship. It is carried out with the help of a concept in which only the most essential is fixed, and the particular is omitted. The ability for theoretical generalization is formed most intensively in adolescence and youth. ...
Theoretical Concept
Word formation. Comes from the Greek. theory - research. Category. Form of concepts. Specificity. A symbolic display of essential properties identified as a result of analytical work carried out using genetic reinterpretation that are common to a class of objects connected by their common history of development. ...
6.1 Empirical and theoretical generalization in psychology
Generalization is a cognitive process that leads to the identification and meaning of relatively stable properties of the surrounding world. The simplest types of generalization are carried out already at the level of perception -, manifesting themselves as constancy of perception -. At the level of human thinking, generalization is mediated by the use of socially developed tools - techniques cognitive activity- and signs.
Empirical generalization - generalization - based on comparison of objects while identifying and designating their common properties through words. The use of such properties as classification ones provides a person with the opportunity to work with a significantly larger volume of objects than is possible preceptively. Using classification schemes, each new item is recognized as belonging to a specific class. The ability for empirical generalization is formed in preschool age, but the most sensitive age is primary school age.
In addition to empirical and theoretical knowledge in science, one more level can be distinguished, containing general ideas about reality and the process of cognition - the level of philosophical prerequisites, philosophical foundations.
When analyzing the structure of scientific knowledge, it is important to take into account that scientific theory gives us a certain slice of reality, but no single system of abstraction can cover the entire richness of reality. Different systems of abstraction dissect reality on different planes. Thus, according to W. Heisenberg, in modern physics there are at least four fundamental closed consistent theories: classical mechanics, thermodynamics, electrodynamics, quantum mechanics. At the same time, in the history of science there is a tendency to reduce everything naturally scientific knowledge to a unified theory, reduce to a small number of initial fundamental principles. Modern scientific methodology is aware of the fundamental impracticability of such information. This is due to the fact that any scientific theory is fundamentally limited in its intensive and extensive development. Science must necessarily contain various systems of abstractions that are not only irreducible to each other, but dissect reality on different planes. This applies to all natural sciences, and to individual sciences that are irreducible to one theory. One theory cannot cover all the diversity of ways of knowing, styles of thinking that exist in modern science.
One of the sources of scientific knowledge is scientific discoveries. And one of the methods of scientific discovery is inductive generalization of experimental data. F. Bacon, the author of this method, believed that he had developed a method of scientific discovery and was confident that everyone could master this method as a simple ordinary tool.
According to Descartes, the method of obtaining new knowledge is based on intuition and deduction. Descartes formulated four universal rules to guide the mind in the search for new knowledge:
1. never accept as truth anything that cannot be recognized as obvious to the mind, while haste and prejudice must be avoided;
2. each problem must be divided into as many parts as needed to better resolve it;
3. thoughts must be arranged in a certain order from the simplest and easily knowable to the most complex, recognizing the existence of order even among those that are not arranged in order in the natural world of things;
4. It is necessary to make complete and comprehensive reviews so that nothing is missed.
However, modern scientific methodology has recognized that inductive generalizations cannot make the leap from empirical to theory.
In the 20th century science has come to understand that since there is no logic of scientific discovery, no methods guaranteeing true scientific knowledge, then scientific statements are nothing more than hypotheses, i.e. scientific assumptions or assumptions whose true meaning is uncertain. This led to the creation of the hypotheco-deductive model scientific knowledge, according to which the scientist puts forward a hypothetical generalization and from it various consequences are derived, verified by experience.
Research by V.V. Davydov showed that at the scientific and applied levels modern psychology it is possible to concretize and implement in teaching practice the concepts known in philosophy about two types of knowledge - about empirical (rational) and theoretical (reasonable) knowledge. They showed that empirical generalization is not a prerequisite for theoretical generalization; some “natural” transition of students from empirical thinking to theoretical thinking is not feasible in the traditional teaching system. Theoretical thinking is a qualitatively different type of thinking, and therefore at some stage of traditional education there is only the possibility of the student going beyond the framework of rational-empirical thinking and further development thinking in the sphere of its theoretical type. The validity of this position is also demonstrated by the fact that the majority of children and adults, regardless of their age and level of education, retain empirical thinking, and the presence of developed theoretical thinking is also revealed in some children and adults in all age periods under consideration.
The theoretical type of thinking in childhood appears later than the empirical one, since its formation is associated with the need to organize special cooperation between the child and the adult.
And practical. At the same time, the main mechanism for the development of the psyche and the assimilation of socio-historical experience is internalization, during which the transition of external activity to internal activity occurs. The principle of activity is a principle of psychology, which assumes that the individual is an active subject of transforming the world. A person, as a subject of activity, can relate to it differently - he can...
And it eliminates them in a “neutralized” form. 6. Introspective approach in psychology. Psychology of consciousness and self-awareness. Diagnosis of self-awareness Introspective y – the science of consciousness. I. psychology is based on ideas related to the development of nature. sciences in the 19th century, who sought to find the simplest elements of consciousness, i.e. atoms, cat. would be indivisible and unchangeable and, when folded, form...
In the domestic theory and practice of psychological measurements. Although the concept of meaningfulness of measurement develops with the transformation of Stevens's ideas and the development of problems of statistics and logic, his provisions regarding scaling, problems of measurement in psychology and the associated meaningfulness of measurements require, in our opinion, a critical analysis of the usual practice of using psychological...
Manage the process of your life. The level of self-control of the life process is identical to the degree of actual human freedom. Ensuring that this level increases is the TECHNOLOGICAL STRATEGY of constructive psychology. The development of man as a subject of his life activity is an integral development, and the means of such development is the practice of self-government...
Theoretical generalization Etymology.
Comes from the Greek. theory - research.
Category.Generalization form.
Specificity.It is based on identifying significant connections between the phenomena of the surrounding world, indicating their genetic relationship. It is carried out with the help of a concept in which only the most essential is fixed, and the particular is omitted. The ability for theoretical generalization is formed most intensively in adolescence and youth.
Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000.
See what a “theoretical generalization” is in other dictionaries:
Generalization- concepts logical operation, through which, as a result of excluding a specific characteristic, a concept of a broader scope is obtained. For example, a power of attorney is a business document. Generalization, a form of increasing knowledge through a mental transition from... ... Wikipedia
Generalization (philosophy)- Generalization of concepts is a logical operation through which, as a result of excluding a specific feature, a concept of a broader scope is obtained. For example, a power of attorney is a business document. Generalization, a form of increasing knowledge through mental... ... Wikipedia
A generalization based on identifying significant connections between phenomena of the external world, indicating their genetic relationship. Relies on hidden essential properties that go beyond direct observation and require introduction... ... Great psychological encyclopedia
Generalization of concepts- Generalization of concepts is a logical operation through which, as a result of excluding a specific characteristic, another concept of a broader scope, but less specific content is obtained; a form of increasing knowledge through a mental transition from... ... Wikipedia
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL- two main types of rational knowledge. They differ in subject matter, methodological clusters, sources, and criteria of truth. The subject of empirical knowledge is empirical objects, which are the results of mental... ... Philosophy of Science: Glossary of Basic Terms
Generalization- transition to a higher level of abstraction by identifying common features (properties, relationships, development trends, etc.) of objects in the area under consideration; entails the emergence of new scientific concepts, laws, and theories. O. provides… … Pedagogical terminological dictionary
GENERALIZATION- (lat. generalisatio), in teaching, a mental action that reveals the relationship and connections between the particular and general properties of the material being acquired. O. one of the main thinks, acts, is present in any activity, allowing a person to discover in... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia
Purpose of education- theoretical generalization and expression of the needs of society for a certain type of personality, ideal requirements for its essence, individuality, properties and qualities, mental, physical, moral, aesthetic development and attitude towards... Pedagogical dictionary
SCIENCE- a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. Interacts with other types of cognitive activity: everyday, artistic, religious, mythological... Philosophical Encyclopedia
Abstraction- This article lacks links to sources of information. Information must be verifiable, otherwise it may be questioned and deleted. You can... Wikipedia
Books
- Sketches and educational drawing, V. A. Mogilevtsev. Theoretical generalization of the experience of conducting educational drawing in a personal workshop, as well as short sketches - sketches, as they are called in this professional environment, represent an unconditional...